For owners of toy breed dogs, few sounds are as alarming or recognizable as the dry, hacking, harsh cough that sounds exactly like a goose honking. Often triggered by excitement, leash pulling, eating, drinking, or even simple changes in temperature, this "goose-honk" is the hallmark sign of tracheal collapse.

When a dog is diagnosed with a collapsing trachea, owners are frequently filled with anxiety. They worry whether their dog can lead a normal life, if the condition will cause sudden suffocation, and whether expensive and risky surgical procedures are inevitable.

The good news is that tracheal collapse is highly manageable. Clinical consensus shows that approximately 70% of dogs with tracheal collapse respond successfully to medical management alone and never require surgical intervention. For the remaining 30% who experience progressive, refractory airway obstruction, advanced surgical salvage techniques like intraluminal stenting can provide immediate breathing relief, though they must be carefully weighed against a high rate of long-term complications.

This guide provides a comprehensive clinical reference on canine tracheal collapse. We will examine the underlying pathophysiology of the disease, detail the four clinical grades of collapse, explore the diagnostic tools used to evaluate the airway, outline the multi-step medical treatment ladder (including an analysis of the relative usage and safety footprints of common medications), discuss the indications and real-world complication rates of tracheal stents, and address common coexisting conditions, such as heart disease and liver dysfunction.

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What is tracheal collapse, and why do toy breeds get the goose-honk cough?

The trachea, or windpipe, is a flexible tube that connects the larynx to the lungs, serving as the primary conduit for airflow. In a healthy dog, the trachea is kept open by a series of C-shaped rings made of hyaline cartilage. These rings support the ventral (bottom) and lateral (sides) walls of the trachea, while the dorsal (top) wall is closed by a flexible, fibrous membrane called the dorsal trachealis muscle.

      HEALTHY TRACHEA                     COLLAPSED TRACHEA
   (Rigid Cartilage Ring)             (Weakened, Flattened Ring)

     ┌───────────────┐                  ┌──────────────────┐
  ===│  Dorsal Wall  │===            ===│   Dorsal Wall    │===
     │(Fibrous Membr)│                  │(Flaccid & Saggy) │
     └───────┬───────┘                  └────────┬─────────┘
        .────┴───.                             .─┴─.
     .─`           `─.                       .─     ─.
    /                 \                     /         \
   │                   │                   │  Reduced  │
   │      Patent       │                   │   Lumen   │
   │      Airway       │                   │           │
    \                 /                     \         /
     `─.           .─`                       `─.   .─`  <-- Weakened
        `─────────`                             `─`         Cartilage

In dogs with tracheal collapse, a progressive degenerative process occurs within the tracheal rings. The cartilage loses its essential structural components—specifically glycosaminoglycans and chondroitin sulfate. As these water-binding molecules decline, the cartilage loses its rigidity and ability to hold its shape. The rigid C-shaped rings become soft and floppy.

Under the normal pressure changes of respiration, these weakened rings flatten:

• Cervical (Neck) Collapse: Occurs during inhalation. As the chest expands, negative pressure draws air in, causing the trachea in the neck to collapse under atmospheric pressure.
• Intrathoracic (Chest) Collapse: Occurs during exhalation. As the dog exhales, positive pressure inside the chest compresses the weakened trachea within the thoracic cavity.

As the cartilage rings flatten, the dorsal trachealis muscle becomes stretched, loose, and flaccid. It sags downward into the tracheal lumen, further blocking the airway.

The physical rubbing of the dorsal membrane against the bottom of the trachea causes chronic irritation and inflammation. The mucosal lining of the trachea responds by producing excess mucus, which the dog attempts to clear through coughing. This coughing causes further irritation, leading to a vicious cycle of inflammation, increased mucus production, and more frequent coughing.

The Breed Predisposition

Tracheal collapse is almost exclusively a disease of middle-aged to older toy and miniature breed dogs. The most commonly affected breeds include:

• Yorkshire Terriers (by far the most heavily represented breed)
• Pomeranians
• Toy Poodles
• Chihuahuas
• Maltese
• Pugs

While the condition is congenital—meaning these dogs are born with a genetic predisposition to weaker tracheal cartilage—clinical signs typically do not appear until the dog reaches 4 to 8 years of age. The onset of symptoms is frequently triggered by secondary factors that place increased demands on the respiratory system.

The two most significant exacerbating factors are obesity and environmental airway irritants (such as cigarette smoke, aerosol sprays, dust, and pollen). Excess fat tissue in the neck and chest exerts direct physical pressure on the weakened trachea, while airway irritants trigger coughing spells that accelerate cartilage degeneration.

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The four grades of tracheal collapse — what each stage means for treatment and prognosis

To standardize diagnosis and guide treatment decisions, veterinarians classify tracheal collapse using a four-tier grading system based on the percentage of airway lumen reduction. This grading is typically determined via direct visual inspection using endoscopy (bronchoscopy) or dynamic imaging (fluoroscopy).

   GRADE I              GRADE II             GRADE III            GRADE IV
 (25% Collapse)       (50% Collapse)       (75% Collapse)      (~100% Collapse)
     .───.                .───.                .───.                .───.
   .`     `.            .`     `.            .─     ─.            .─     ─.
  /   ___   \          /  _____  \          /_________\          /_________\
 |   /   \   |        |  /     \  |        |___________|        |___________|
 |   \___/   |         \ \_____/ /          \         /          \         /
  \         /           `.     .`            `.     .`            `.     .`
   `───────`              `───`                `───`                `───`
  Lumen: ~75%          Lumen: ~50%          Lumen: ~25%          Lumen: Obliterated

Grade I

• Pathology: The tracheal cartilage rings maintain their normal C-shape conformation, but the dorsal trachealis muscle is slightly loose and sags downward, reducing the tracheal lumen by approximately 25%.
• Clinical Signs: Mild, intermittent coughing, often only when the dog is excited or pulls on a collar.
• Treatment: Conservative medical management. Lifestyle modifications (weight control, transition to a harness) are usually sufficient to control symptoms.

Grade II

• Pathology: The tracheal cartilage rings begin to flatten, and the dorsal trachealis muscle sags further into the airway, reducing the lumen by approximately 50%.
• Clinical Signs: More frequent, dry, goose-honk coughing. Mild exercise intolerance may be observed.
• Treatment: Stepped medical management. Lifestyle changes are combined with daily or as-needed medications, such as cough suppressants or bronchodilators, to control the cough cycle.

Grade III

• Pathology: The tracheal cartilage rings are severely flattened and may be nearly straight. The dorsal trachealis muscle sags extensively, reducing the tracheal lumen by approximately 75%.
• Clinical Signs: Chronic, severe coughing that interferes with daily activity. Marked exercise intolerance, loud breathing sounds (stridor), and occasional respiratory distress (cyanosis or blue gums) during stress or heat.
• Treatment: Aggressive medical therapy using a combination of medications (antitussives, anti-inflammatories, sedatives). If medical management fails to maintain a good quality of life or if the dog experiences frequent breathing emergencies, the dog becomes a candidate for surgical intervention or stenting.

Grade IV

• Pathology: The tracheal cartilage rings are completely flat or may even invert (curve backward). The dorsal trachealis muscle rests directly on the bottom cartilage, completely obliterating the tracheal lumen (90% to 100% collapse).
• Clinical Signs: Constant respiratory distress, frequent life-threatening breathing crises, severe exercise intolerance, cyanosis, and collapse.
• Treatment: Emergency stabilization. Medical management is rarely sufficient alone at this stage; surgical correction or an intraluminal tracheal stent is almost always required to keep the airway patent and prevent asphyxiation.

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How is tracheal collapse diagnosed (and why an X-ray can miss it)?

Diagnosing tracheal collapse requires demonstrating that the airway is physically narrowing. However, because the trachea is a dynamic, moving structure that collapses and opens during different phases of breathing, capturing this narrowing can be challenging.

The Limitations of Standard Radiographs (X-rays)

A standard chest and neck X-ray is the most common first step when working up a coughing dog. While radiographs are excellent for ruling out other causes of coughing—such as pneumonia, congestive heart failure, or thoracic masses—they have a high rate of false negatives for tracheal collapse.

Studies show that standard static radiographs only confirm tracheal collapse in approximately 60% to 65% of affected dogs.

The reason for this limitation is simple: an X-ray is a single snapshot in time. If the X-ray is taken when the dog is inhaling, an intrathoracic collapse will not be visible because the trachea inside the chest is open during inhalation. Conversely, if the X-ray is taken when the dog is exhaling, a cervical collapse in the neck will be missed.

To improve the diagnostic yield of radiographs, veterinarians must take separate, timed inspiratory and expiratory views, which can be difficult to coordinate in a panting, coughing dog.

The Diagnostic Gold Standards

To obtain an accurate, dynamic view of the airway, advanced diagnostics are required:

1. Fluoroscopy (Dynamic X-ray): This is a continuous, moving X-ray video that allows the veterinarian to watch the dog breathe in real-time. Fluoroscopy is highly effective because it captures the trachea during all phases of respiration, coughing, and swallowing. It allows the clinician to identify exactly where the collapse is occurring (cervical vs. intrathoracic) and determine its severity without anesthetizing the dog.
2. Tracheobronchoscopy (Endoscopy): This is the gold-standard diagnostic tool. Under light anesthesia, a small, flexible camera is passed down the dog's trachea. This allows direct visualization of the mucosal lining, the shape of the cartilage rings, and the sagging of the dorsal membrane. It is also the only tool that allows the clinician to grade the collapse accurately, take sterile airway cultures, and evaluate the lower airways for concurrent mainstem bronchus collapse (collapse of the airways leading directly into the lungs, which occurs in up to 50% to 60% of tracheal collapse dogs).

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The medical-management ladder: weight, harness, and which cough medications actually help

For the majority of dogs, the goose-honk cough can be successfully managed through a combination of lifestyle changes and targeted medications. The goal of medical therapy is not to cure the disease (which is impossible, as the cartilage degeneration is irreversible) but to reduce the frequency and severity of the cough, breaking the inflammation cycle and maintaining a good quality of life.

The Non-Negotiable Foundation

No medication will be effective if the foundational lifestyle steps are ignored.

• Weight Loss: This is the single most powerful tool in the medical-management ladder. In obese dogs, weight loss alone can dramatically reduce or even eliminate clinical signs. A loss of just 10% to 15% of body weight can reduce airway irritation because it removes fat deposits in the neck and chest that compress the trachea. For more details on safe weight reduction, see our guide on dog obesity and weight management.
• Harness Use: Collars place direct, concentrated pressure on the cervical trachea. A single pull on a leash attached to a collar can collapse a weakened windpipe and trigger a severe coughing spell. All dogs with tracheal collapse must transition to a body harness for life.
• Environmental Control: Strict avoidance of cigarette smoke, vaping, aerosol sprays, perfumes, and dusty environments is mandatory. Air purifiers can help reduce airborne allergens that trigger coughing.

The Pharmacological Ladder

When lifestyle changes are not enough, veterinarians introduce medications. Because tracheal collapse is chronic, dogs are often managed on a combination of drugs tailored to their specific symptoms.

To understand what drugs are most commonly used, we can look at the prescribing footprints of these ingredients in clinical reports. In a 2023 JAVMA specialist survey, hydrocodone was identified as the #1 specialist-prescribed antitussive, chosen by 56% of specialists as their first-line cough suppressant, with opioid class drugs utilized by 78% of respondents.

We can also inspect the volume of reporting for these active ingredients in passive surveillance data. The table below represents the relative adverse-event report counts for these ingredients from the FDA's openFDA animal event database.

[!NOTE] Important Data Caveat: These counts represent total historical adverse-event report mentions across all clinical uses. They reflect the high prescription volume and usage frequency of these drugs in veterinary medicine, not confirmed causation of side effects, and they do not represent a head-to-head safety comparison.

Active Ingredient	Clinical Role in Tracheal Collapse	openFDA Report Count	Key Clinical Usage & Safety Guidelines
Maropitant Citrate	Anti-inflammatory & antiemetic	13,037	Widely used off-label as an airway anti-inflammatory; it helps reduce airway mucus and acts as a mild antitussive. See maropitant as an airway anti-inflammatory.
Gabapentin	Mild sedative & neuro-modulator	10,186	Used to break the anxiety-cough cycle; sedating the dog slightly prevents the excitement that triggers collapse. See sedatives to break the cough cycle.
Butorphanol	Opioid antitussive & sedative	3,858	A potent cough suppressant and mild sedative. Often used as an injectable for emergency stabilization or orally for short-term control.
Hydrocodone	Opioid antitussive	273	The gold-standard oral cough suppressant in dogs. It directly acts on the cough center in the brain to reduce the cough reflex.
Theophylline	Bronchodilator	181	Helps open the lower airways (bronchi), reducing the effort required to pull air through the collapsed trachea.
Codeine	Opioid antitussive	70	An alternative oral opioid cough suppressant, often combined with acetaminophen (which must be used with extreme caution and never in cats).
Stanozolol	Anabolic steroid	63	Historically used to strengthen tracheal cartilage; however, it is no longer commercially available in the US and is rarely used today.
Terbutaline	Beta-agonist bronchodilator	40	Relaxant for airway smooth muscle, used to support lower airway patency in dogs with concurrent bronchomalacia.
Dextromethorphan	OTC antitussive	16	Over-the-counter cough medicine; it has very poor bioavailability in dogs and is generally considered ineffective for tracheal collapse.

Designing the Drug Protocol

A standard medical protocol is built in steps:

1. First-line Cough Suppression: Hydrocodone or butorphanol is started to suppress the physical cough reflex. This stops the mechanical trauma to the tracheal lining.
2. Airway Anti-inflammatory Support: Short courses of low-dose oral steroids (like prednisone) or daily maropitant are added to reduce mucosal swelling and mucus production.
3. Anxiety Management: Because coughing causes anxiety, and anxiety causes hyperventilation which triggers more coughing, sedatives like gabapentin or acepromazine are introduced to keep the dog calm, especially during veterinary visits or travel.
4. Lower Airway Support: If the dog has coexisting bronchomalacia (bronchial collapse), a bronchodilator like theophylline is added to reduce lower airway resistance.

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When does a tracheal collapse dog need a stent — and why is it palliative, not a cure?

For dogs with Grade III or IV tracheal collapse who have failed aggressive medical therapy—meaning they experience constant coughing, frequent respiratory distress, or life-threatening airway occlusion despite maximal medication—interventional therapy is required.

The modern standard for stabilizing these refractory cases is the placement of an intraluminal self-expanding nitinol stent.

   COLLAPSED TRACHEA                 STENT INSERTION (PATENT AIRWAY)
   (Airway Occluded)                   (Nitinol Mesh Supporting Walls)
       .─┴─.                                    .───.
     .─     ─.                                .`  |  `.   <-- Nitinol
    /         \                              /  | | |  \      Mesh Stent
   │  Reduced  │                            │  |  |  |  │
   │   Lumen   │  ========================> │  |  |  |  │  <-- Restored
   │           │                            │  |  |  |  │      Airway
    \         /                              \  | | |  /
     `─.   .─`                                `.  |  .`
        `─`                                     `───`

A tracheal stent is a flexible, woven wire mesh tube made of nitinol (a nickel-titanium shape-memory alloy). Under light anesthesia and fluoroscopic guidance, the compressed stent is passed into the trachea and deployed. As it exits the delivery catheter, it expands to its pre-set diameter, pushing the collapsed tracheal walls outward and immediately restoring a wide, open airway.

The Surgical Stent Outcome Numbers

Stent placement is a highly successful rescue procedure, but it is not a cure. It is a palliative salvage option. While it immediately restores breathing, the physical presence of a metal mesh inside a moving, living airway triggers a lifelong tissue response.

Owners must understand the real-world outcome statistics, drawn from large longitudinal cohort studies of stented dogs (notably the 75-dog JAVMA cohort of Weisse and colleagues and the 52-dog JVIM cohort of Violette and colleagues):

• Immediate Success: 95% of dogs show immediate improvement in breathing and a marked reduction in respiratory distress after stent deployment.
• Medication Persistence: 95% of stented dogs must remain on lifelong cough medications. The stent keeps the airway open, but it does not stop the cough reflex; the physical presence of the metal wire can actually tickle the trachea, causing a mild, persistent dry cough.
• The Fracture Risk: Approximately 25% of stents fracture over time. The trachea is a highly dynamic organ that bends, stretches, and compresses as the dog barks, swallows, and moves its neck. The metal wires eventually undergo metal fatigue and break. If a stent fractures, it can collapse or irritate the tissue, often requiring the placement of a second, overlapping stent.
• Tissue Ingrowth (Granulation): Approximately 19% of dogs develop obstructive tissue ingrowth. The body treats the stent as a foreign object, and inflammatory scar tissue (granulation tissue) grows through the wire mesh into the tracheal lumen, re-blocking the airway. This requires treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs, laser ablation, or additional stenting.
• Airway Infections: 75% of stented dogs have positive bacterial airway cultures, and 57% develop active tracheal infections or pneumonia long-term. The stent interferes with the trachea's natural "mucociliary escalator"—the tiny hair-like structures that sweep mucus and bacteria out of the lungs. Bacteria pool around the wire mesh, leading to chronic low-grade infections that require periodic courses of antibiotics.
• Survival Time: The median survival time after stent placement is approximately 1,000 days (2.7 years), with approximately 77% of stented dogs eventually dying of respiratory-related causes (such as progressive collapse of the lower airways where the stent cannot reach).

For younger dogs with cervical collapse, an alternative surgical option is the placement of extraluminal plastic ring prostheses. This involves an open neck surgery where plastic rings are sutured to the outside of the trachea to support the walls. While ring prostheses do not carry the tissue-ingrowth or mucociliary-blockage risks of stents, the surgery is highly invasive, carries a high risk of laryngeal nerve damage (causing laryngeal paralysis), and is only possible for the portion of the trachea located in the neck.

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Why does my collapsing-trachea dog also have a heart murmur or abnormal liver tests?

Tracheal collapse is rarely an isolated disease. Because it affects toy breeds and causes chronic respiratory stress, it frequently coexists with other degenerative conditions. Identifying and managing these comorbidities is essential for a successful treatment plan.

                  ┌──────────────────────┐
                  │  TRACHEAL COLLAPSE   │
                  └──────────┬───────────┘
            ┌────────────────┼────────────────┐
            ▼                ▼                ▼
   ┌─────────────────┐ ┌───────────┐ ┌─────────────────┐
   │ 55% Stage B/C   │ │  Chronic  │ │  92% Abnormal   │
   │  MMVD co-exists │ │  Hypoxia  │ │   Liver Tests   │
   └────────│────────┘ └─────┬─────┘ └────────│────────┘
            ▼                ▼                ▼
   [Cardiac Murmur & ]   [Pulmonary] [Hepatomegaly &   ]
   [ Congestive Heart]   [ Hyper-  ] [ Elevated Enzymes]
   [ Failure Mimicry ]   [ tension ] [ (Bile Acid Lag) ]

The Cardiac Connection: Mitral Valve Disease (MMVD)

The most common coexisting disease is Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease (MMVD). Both tracheal collapse and MMVD are degenerative diseases of middle-aged to older toy breeds.

Clinical studies show that 55.4% of dogs with tracheal collapse also have MMVD stage B1 or higher, and up to 26% have concurrent pulmonary hypertension.

This co-occurrence creates a major diagnostic challenge: cardiac cough vs. airway cough.

• An MMVD dog with an enlarged heart (cardiomegaly) will develop a cough because the enlarged left atrium physically presses upward against the left mainstem bronchus, mimicking tracheal collapse.
• If the heart disease progresses to congestive heart failure (CHF), fluid accumulates in the lungs, causing a soft, wet cough.
• Conversely, a dog with severe tracheal collapse can develop secondary heart changes (cor pulmonale) because the chronic lack of oxygen forces the blood vessels in the lungs to constrict, raising blood pressure in the right side of the heart.

If a dog with a collapsing trachea has a heart murmur, a veterinary cardiologist should perform an echocardiogram why a heart murmur changes the collapsing-trachea plan. Treating a cardiac cough with airway drugs will fail, and treating a tracheal cough with aggressive heart diuretics can cause severe dehydration and kidney injury.

The Hepatic Connection: Hepatopathy and Abnormal Liver Function

Another well-documented comorbidity is liver disease. In a landmark study (Bauer et al., 2006), 92% of dogs with tracheal collapse had abnormal liver function tests, specifically elevated serum bile acids, along with general elevations in liver enzymes (ALT and ALP).

The exact mechanism behind this link is dual-fold:

1. Chronic Hypoxia (Lack of Oxygen): The constant airway obstruction causes chronic low-grade oxygen deprivation. The liver is highly sensitive to oxygen levels, and chronic hypoxia leads to hepatocyte degeneration and vacuolar change.
2. Exogenous Steroid Exposure: Many tracheal collapse dogs are treated with corticosteroids to control airway inflammation, which triggers steroid-induced hepatopathy.

Clinically, these dogs often present with hepatomegaly (an enlarged liver). Because the liver is responsible for metabolizing many of the medications used to manage tracheal collapse, veterinarians must perform baseline liver panels and bile acid testing prior to starting long-term drug therapy, and adjust drug dosages if liver function is compromised.

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Can tracheal collapse cause sudden death, and when is coughing a breathing emergency?

While tracheal collapse is typically a chronic, slowly progressive disease, it can become a sudden life-threatening emergency. Under conditions of extreme stress, excitement, pain, or high heat and humidity, a dog's breathing rate increases. The rapid, forceful airflow generates intense negative pressure that sucks the weakened trachea completely closed.

This triggers a respiratory crisis: the dog panics, struggles to draw breath, hyperventilates (generating even more negative pressure), and its body temperature begins to rise because it cannot pant effectively to cool down.

Recognizing a Breathing Emergency

Owners must immediately take their dog to an emergency veterinary hospital if they observe any of the following signs:

• Cyanosis: The gums or tongue turn blue, purple, or pale gray (indicating a lack of oxygen in the blood).
• Syncopic Episodes (Fainting): The dog coughs severely and then temporarily loses consciousness or collapses.
• Orthopneic Posturing: The dog stands with its elbows abducted (pointed outward) and its neck extended straight out, struggling to move its chest.
• Persistent Stridor: A loud, high-pitched squeaking or crowing sound during inhalation.
• Hyperthermia: A rectal temperature rising above 103°F (39.4°C) as a result of respiratory distress and heat retention.

Emergency Stabilization in the Clinic

When a tracheal collapse dog arrives at the clinic in a crisis, the veterinary team follows a strict stabilization protocol:

• Oxygen Therapy: The dog is placed in a quiet, temperature-controlled oxygen cage or provided flow-by oxygen. Minimal handling is essential; struggling against a mask or restraint will increase oxygen demands and worsen the airway collapse.
• Sedation: A sedative (typically butorphanol or acepromazine) is administered immediately. Sedation is the single most important step: it calms the dog, slows the breathing rate, reduces the negative pressure in the airway, and breaks the panic-collapse cycle.
• Rapid-acting Corticosteroids: Intravenous dexamethasone is administered to reduce acute swelling of the tracheal mucosa.
• Active Cooling: If the dog's temperature is elevated, cool IV fluids and fan cooling are initiated.
• Emergency Intubation: If the dog does not respond to sedation and oxygen, or if it loses consciousness, it must be immediately anesthetized and intubated to establish a secure airway.

Understanding these emergency triggers and having an active relationship with a 24-hour emergency clinic is a critical part of living with a collapsing-trachea dog. With a structured medical plan, weight control, and prompt emergency management, these small dogs can continue to live comfortable, happy lives for many years.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Can a dog live a normal life with a collapsed trachea?

Yes. With early diagnosis, strict weight control, the use of a harness, and a stepped medical plan, the majority of dogs with tracheal collapse live a normal lifespan with a good quality of life. The condition is progressive, but its rate of advancement is typically slow and manageable.

What are the four stages (grades) of tracheal collapse in dogs?

The disease is graded by the percentage of airway narrowing: Grade I is a 25% reduction in the tracheal opening; Grade II is a 50% reduction; Grade III is a 75% reduction; and Grade IV is a 90% to 100% collapse where the airway is nearly or completely closed.

Does my collapsing-trachea dog need surgery or a stent?

Only a minority of dogs require interventional surgery or a stent—typically those classified as Grade III or IV who no longer respond to medical management or experience frequent breathing crises. Stents are highly effective at restoring breathing immediately, but they are palliative salvage options that carry a high rate of long-term complications.

Which cough medicine is used for tracheal collapse, and is it safe long-term?

Opioid cough suppressants, specifically hydrocodone and butorphanol, are the most effective oral medications. They are safe for long-term use under veterinary supervision, but side effects like mild sedation, constipation, and slowed gut motility must be monitored.

Can tracheal collapse cause sudden death in dogs?

Yes, in severe cases or during acute respiratory crises (triggered by extreme excitement, stress, or heat), the trachea can collapse completely, leading to asphyxiation, severe oxygen deprivation, or fatal hyperthermia if emergency veterinary care is delayed.

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Sources

• American College of Veterinary Surgeons (ACVS). (2022). Tracheal Collapse. https://www.acvs.org/small-animal/tracheal-collapse
• Carr, S. V., Reinero, C., Rishniw, M., & Pritchard, J. C. (2023). Specialists' approach to tracheal collapse: survey-based opinions on diagnostics, medical management, and comorbid diseases. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 261(1), 80-86. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.03.0108
• Kim, M.-R., Kim, S.-H., Ryu, M.-O., Youn, H.-Y., Choi, J.-H., & Seo, K.-W. (2024). A retrospective study of tracheal collapse in small-breed dogs: 110 cases (2022–2024). Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 11, 1448249. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11349713
• Violette, N. P., Weisse, C., Berent, A. C., & Lamb, K. E. (2019). Correlations among tracheal dimensions, tracheal stent dimensions, and major complications after endoluminal stenting of tracheal collapse syndrome in dogs (52 dogs). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 2019. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6766514
• Weisse, C., Berent, A., Violette, L., McDougall, R., & Lamb, K. (2019). Short-, intermediate-, and long-term results for endoluminal stent placement in dogs with tracheal collapse (75 dogs; median survival 1,005 days). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 254(3), 380-392. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.254.3.380
• Rozanski, E. (2021). Tracheal Collapse in Dogs: Clinical Signs, Diagnostics, and Staging. Today's Veterinary Practice. https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/respiratory-medicine/tracheal-collapse
• Bauer, N. B., Schneider, M. A., Neiger, R., & Moritz, A. (2006). Liver disease in dogs with tracheal collapse (26 dogs; 24/26 had elevated basal bile acids). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 20(4), 845-849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb00742.x
• FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine. (2026). Adverse Drug Event Reporting Database for Animal Drugs (openFDA). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/safety-health/adverse-drug-event-reporting-animals