Grape and Raisin Toxicity in Dogs: Tartaric Acid, Kidney Failure, and Treatment
Why grapes and raisins cause acute kidney injury in dogs — the landmark 2022 tartaric acid discovery, toxic dose unpredictability, decontamination, and 72-hour IV diuresis.
For more than two decades, grape and raisin ingestion in dogs stood as one of veterinary medicine's most baffling and frustrating toxicological mysteries. While veterinarians had established since 1989 that fruits from the Vitis genus could trigger catastrophic acute kidney injury (AKI) in canine patients, the underlying toxic principle remained completely unidentified. Unlike most pharmaceuticals or environmental poisons that exhibit a predictable dose-response relationship, grape toxicity seemed chaotic: some dogs suffered fatal oliguric renal failure after consuming a single handful of raisins, while others ingested entire bunches of grapes without demonstrating measurable renal dysfunction.
That mystery was finally solved in 2021–2022. A landmark study published in the Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care (Wegenast et al., 2022; PMID 35869755) identified tartaric acid (and its salt, potassium bitartrate) as the proposed nephrotoxic principle responsible for grape, raisin, and tamarind toxicosis in dogs.
This breakthrough not only explained why grapes damage canine kidneys at a cellular level, but also clarified why the toxic dose is so notoriously unpredictable across individual dogs, grape varieties, and growing seasons.
This comprehensive guide breaks down the science of tartaric acid nephrotoxicity, details the risk thresholds established by the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center (APCC) and the Merck Veterinary Manual, outlines the critical gastrointestinal decontamination window, and provides a complete clinical roadmap for the mandatory 72-hour intravenous fluid diuresis and renal monitoring protocol.
What to Do Immediately: Emergency Triage Step-by-Step
If your dog has ingested grapes, raisins, currants, or tamarind, take immediate action following this emergency protocol:
- Treat Any Ingestion as a Potential Emergency: Because individual canine sensitivity to tartaric acid is idiosyncratic and there is no known safe dose, any confirmed or suspected ingestion warrants immediate professional triage.
- Do Not Wait for Vomiting or Lethargy: By the time clinical signs of acute kidney failure appear (typically 24 to 48 hours post-ingestion), significant structural damage to the renal tubular epithelium has already occurred.
- Gather Ingestion Information:
- Exact Product Type: Were they fresh grapes (seedless, seeded, green, red, black), dried raisins, sultanas, Zante currants, or tamarind paste/candy?
- Estimated Quantity: Count the missing items or estimate the total weight in grams or ounces.
- Dog's Body Weight: Know your dog's exact weight in pounds or kilograms.
- Time Elapsed: Note the time of ingestion to evaluate the decontamination window.
- Call Veterinary Poison Control or Emergency Clinic:
- ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center (APCC): (888) 426-4435 (Consultation fee may apply)
- Pet Poison Helpline: (855) 764-7661 (Consultation fee may apply)
- Seek Immediate Decontamination: If ingestion occurred within ~2 hours and your dog is asymptomatic, a veterinarian will induce vomiting to evacuate the fruit from the stomach before systemic absorption occurs.
The Mystery Solved: The 2021–2022 Tartaric Acid Breakthrough
For years, researchers hypothesized that grape toxicity might be caused by mycotoxins, heavy metals, pesticides, monosaccharides, or tartrates. However, none of these candidates consistently reproduced the specific renal tubular lesions observed in clinical cases.
The Cream of Tartar Connection
In 2021, toxicologists at the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center, in collaboration with veterinary pathologists at Cornell University, investigated a series of severe poisoning cases involving dogs that ingested homemade playdough made with cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate) and culinary tamarind paste (Tamarindus indica).
The affected dogs developed acute onset vomiting, marked azotemia, oliguria, and histopathologic lesions identical to classic grape and raisin nephrotoxicosis—specifically acute necrosis of the proximal renal tubular epithelium.
[Cream of Tartar Ingestion] ──┐
[Tamarind Paste Ingestion] ──┼──► [High Intracellular Tartaric Acid Concentration]
[Grape / Raisin Ingestion] ──┘ │
▼
[Proximal Tubular Epithelial Necrosis]
│
▼
[Acute Intrinsic Renal Failure (AKI)]
│
▼
[Oliguria / Anuria & Uremic Crisis]
Subsequent analytical chemistry confirmed that grapes, raisins, tamarinds, and cream of tartar all share exceptionally high concentrations of tartaric acid and potassium bitartrate. The findings were formally published in JVECC in 2022 (Wegenast et al.), confirming tartaric acid as the primary toxic principle.
Pathogenesis: Why Tartaric Acid Destroys Canine Kidneys
Tartaric acid (C₄H₆O₆) is a dicarboxylic organic acid synthesized naturally by grapevines (Vitis spp.) and tamarind trees.
In most mammalian species (including humans, rats, and mice), ingested tartaric acid is rapidly cleared by specialized organic anion transporters (OATs) in the kidney and metabolized by intestinal microflora. However, canine renal physiology possesses a unique metabolic vulnerability:
- Lack of Specific Organic Acid Transporters: Dogs lack efficient renal tubular transport mechanisms for certain organic dicarboxylic acids.
- Proximal Tubular Cell Accumulation: Unmetabolized tartaric acid filtered through the glomeruli becomes concentrated in the renal filtrate and is passively absorbed into proximal tubular epithelial cells.
- Mitochondrial & Cellular Necrosis: Intracellular accumulation of tartaric acid disrupts mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, induces severe cellular oxidative stress, and triggers widespread acute tubular necrosis (ATN).
- Renal Ischemia & Tubular Obstruction: Sloughed necrotic epithelial cells and interstitial edema cause mechanical tubular obstruction, elevated intratubular pressure, decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and eventual oliguric or anuric renal failure.
Botanical Taxonomy: Which Fruits Are Toxic and Which Are Safe?
A common source of confusion for pet owners and clinic staff is the distinction between true currants and Zante currants. Botanical classification determines renal risk:
| Product Name | Botanical Species / Genus | Toxic Principle (Tartaric Acid) Present? | Canine Renal Risk Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fresh Grapes (All Varieties) | Vitis vinifera / Vitis labrusca | Yes (High) | High Potential Risk |
| Raisins (Sun-Dried Grapes) | Vitis vinifera | Yes (Extreme; concentrated 3–5x) | Extreme Risk |
| Sultanas (Golden Raisins) | Vitis vinifera | Yes (Extreme) | Extreme Risk |
| Zante Currants (Corinth Raisins) | Vitis vinifera var. Apyrena | Yes (Extreme; dried small grapes) | Extreme Risk |
| Tamarind / Tamarind Paste | Tamarindus indica | Yes (Very High) | High Risk |
| Cream of Tartar (Baking Ingredient) | Potassium bitartrate | Yes (Pure compound) | Extreme Risk |
| True Black / Red / White Currants | Ribes genus (Ribes nigrum) | No (Taxonomically distinct) | No Renal Risk |
| Gooseberries | Ribes uva-crispa | No | No Renal Risk |
Crucial Botanical Warning: "Zante currants" sold in grocery stores for baking are not true currants. They are miniature dried grapes (Vitis vinifera) and carry the exact same extreme nephrotoxic risk as standard raisins. True currants belong to the Ribes genus and do not cause renal failure.
How Many Grapes Are Toxic? Dose Unpredictability & Risk Markers
One of the most dangerous misconceptions among pet owners is the search for a "safe threshold"—the belief that a dog can safely consume 1 or 2 grapes based on body weight.
Why the Toxic Dose Is Entirely Unpredictable
Veterinary toxicologists at the ASPCA APCC emphasize that there is no established non-toxic threshold for grapes or raisins. The dose-response relationship varies dramatically due to three natural variables:
- Variability in Tartaric Acid Content: Tartaric acid concentration in grapes fluctuates significantly based on grape cultivar, soil composition, geographic region, solar exposure, agricultural microclimate, stage of ripeness, and storage duration. Raisins contain 3 to 5 times more tartaric acid per gram than fresh grapes due to water loss during drying.
- Individual Canine Susceptibility: Canine sensitivity to tartaric acid appears to be an idiosyncratic physiological trait. Differences in gastrointestinal absorption rates, intestinal microbiome degradation, and baseline renal perfusion explain why one dog may develop fatal renal failure from 3 raisins while a housemate remains unaffected after eating a bunch.
- Pre-existing Renal Reserve: Dogs with subclinical, undiagnosed chronic kidney disease (CKD) or age-related nephron loss have minimal functional reserve and succumb to lower tartaric acid exposures.
ASPCA APCC and Merck Risk Markers
While an exact toxic dose cannot be guaranteed, historical epidemiological data from the ASPCA APCC and the Merck Veterinary Manual establish the following baseline risk markers:
- Lowest Documented Toxic Grape Dose: Approximately 0.32 to 0.65 ounces per kilogram (9 to 18 g/kg) of body weight.
- Lowest Documented Toxic Raisin Dose: Approximately 0.11 ounces per kilogram (3 g/kg) of body weight.
- Merck Risk Marker: As a clinical benchmark, more than one grape or raisin per 4.5 kg (10 lbs) of body weight contains sufficient tartaric acid to pose a genuine risk of renal injury (Merck Veterinary Manual).
Ingestion Risk Reference Table across Dog Weights
The table below demonstrates how few grapes or raisins are required to cross the Merck risk marker (>1 fruit per 10 lbs) and the lowest documented toxic dose across body weights:
| Dog Body Weight (lbs / kg) | Merck Risk Marker: Grapes/Raisins Count | Lowest Documented Toxic Grape Weight | Lowest Documented Toxic Raisin Weight |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5 lbs (2.3 kg) | 1 fruit | 0.8 oz (22 g / ~4 grapes) | 0.25 oz (7 g / ~15 raisins) |
| 10 lbs (4.5 kg) | 2 fruits | 1.6 oz (45 g / ~8 grapes) | 0.5 oz (14 g / ~30 raisins) |
| 25 lbs (11.3 kg) | 3 to 4 fruits | 4.0 oz (113 g / ~20 grapes) | 1.25 oz (35 g / ~75 raisins) |
| 50 lbs (22.7 kg) | 5 to 6 fruits | 8.0 oz (227 g / ~40 grapes) | 2.5 oz (70 g / ~150 raisins) |
| 75 lbs (34.1 kg) | 8 to 9 fruits | 12.0 oz (340 g / ~60 grapes) | 3.75 oz (105 g / ~225 raisins) |
Epidemiological Scope: ASPCA APCC Case Volume
The scale of grape and raisin exposure in pet populations is immense. According to official ASPCA data, ASPCA Poison Control managed over 9,300 grape and raisin exposure cases in 2025 alone. Human foods consistently rank as the #2 overall toxin category handled by APCC hotlines nationwide, with grapes and raisins representing the primary food-related nephrotoxin.
Symptoms and Clinical Timeline of Grape Poisoning
Grape and raisin toxicosis progresses through three distinct clinical phases over a 72-hour period.
[0–12 Hours] ───────────────► [24–48 Hours] ──────────────► [48–72+ Hours]
Phase 1: GI Onset Phase 2: Acute Renal Injury Phase 3: Uremic Crisis
• Vomiting (Grapes in vomit) • Azotemia (Elevated BUN/Cr) • Oliguria / Anuria
• Diarrhea & Anorexia • Polydipsia ➔ Oliguria • Metabolic Acidosis
• Abdominal Lethargy • Dehydration & Weakness • Hyperkalemia / Coma
Phase 1: Early Gastrointestinal Onset (0 to 12 Hours Post-Ingestion)
Gastrointestinal irritation occurs rapidly as tartaric acid interacts with the gastric mucosa.
- Vomiting: Occurs in over 90% of cases, typically beginning within 2 to 6 hours post-ingestion. Vomitus frequently contains intact or partially digested grape skins, flesh, or raisin fragments.
- Diarrhea & Anorexia: Stools may be loose and contain visible fruit pieces. Dogs become completely inappetent.
- Lethargy & Abdominal Pain: Dogs appear dull, quiet, and tender upon abdominal palpation over the cranial abdomen and renal flanks.
Phase 2: Onset of Acute Kidney Injury (24 to 48 Hours Post-Ingestion)
As tartaric acid induces acute tubular necrosis, functional nephrons fail, leading to progressive intrinsic renal failure.
- Biochemical Azotemia: Bloodwork demonstrates rapid, steep elevations in Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN), Serum Creatinine, and Phosphorus.
- Altered Urine Production: Initially, affected dogs may exhibit transient compensatory polyuria (increased urination). As tubular injury progresses, urine output drops sharply, transitioning to oliguria (<1 mL/kg/hour) or total anuria (0 mL/kg/hour).
- Isosthenuria & Casts: Urinalysis reveals low urine specific gravity (isosthenuria, 1.008 to 1.012), proteinuria, glucosuria despite normal blood glucose (indicating proximal tubular transport failure), and abundant granular or epithelial renal casts.
Phase 3: Advanced Uremic Crisis (48 to 72+ Hours Post-Ingestion)
Without aggressive therapy, severe uremia and electrolyte collapse ensue.
- Uremic Encephalopathy: Severe lethargy, ataxia, muscle tremors, seizures, and altered mentation caused by circulating uremic toxins.
- Hyperkalemia & Cardiac Arrest: Inability to excrete potassium leads to severe hyperkalemia (>6.5 mEq/L), causing bradycardia, tented T-waves, atrial standstill, and fatal cardiac arrest.
- Metabolic Acidosis: Failure to excrete hydrogen ions causes severe metabolic acidosis.
- Fluid Overload & Pulmonary Edema: If anuric patients continue to receive aggressive fluid therapy without active urine output, fluid accumulates in tissues, leading to generalized edema, ascites, and fatal pulmonary edema.
Decontamination Rules: The 2-to-4 Hour Window
Early, aggressive gastrointestinal decontamination is the single most critical factor determining patient survival. Once grapes or raisins exit the stomach and pass into the small intestine, decontamination efficiency drops precipitously.
[Suspected / Confirmed Ingestion]
│
Is Ingestion Within 2–4 Hours?
│
┌────────────────┴────────────────┐
▼ ▼
[YES] [NO]
• Check Mentation & Airway • Evacuation Efficiency Low
• Induce Emesis (Clevor/Apomorphine) • Proceed Directly to ICU Admission
• Administer Activated Charcoal • Start Baseline Chemistry & Urinalysis
• Initiate 72h IV Diuresis • Initiate 72h IV Diuresis
The Emesis Induction Window
- Ideal Window: Within 2 hours of ingestion.
- Extended Window: Emesis may still be beneficial up to 4 to 6 hours post-ingestion. Grapes and raisins—especially dried raisins—frequently remain in the stomach for extended periods because high sugar content and whole fruit skins delay gastric emptying.
Veterinary Decontamination Protocols
Veterinary clinics employ pharmacological emesis agents to rapidly empty gastric contents:
- Ropinirole Ophthalmic Solution (Clevor): The preferred FDA-approved veterinary emetic for dogs. Administered as ocular drops, it induces rapid vomiting via central dopamine D₂ receptor stimulation.
- Apomorphine Hydrochloride: Administered IV or placed in the conjunctival sac. Highly effective in canine patients.
Home Decontamination Caution: 3% Hydrogen Peroxide
If an owner is in a remote location and cannot reach a veterinary facility within 2 hours, a veterinarian or poison control specialist may instruct them to administer 3% hydrogen peroxide orally (1-2 mL/kg, max 45 mL).
However, home emesis should never be attempted if the dog is already vomiting, depressed, or neurologically abnormal, due to the risk of aspiration.
Activated Charcoal Administration
Following successful emesis, activated charcoal (1 to 2 g/kg PO) with a cathartic (such as sorbitol) is administered to bind remaining tartaric acid in the GI tract. A single dose of activated charcoal is standard for grape ingestions, provided the patient is not dehydrated or hypernatremic.
Treatment & Mandatory 72-Hour Renal Monitoring Protocol
There is no pharmacological binding agent or specific antidote for tartaric acid. Once decontamination is complete, treatment focuses entirely on preventing acute tubular necrosis through aggressive fluid therapy and closely monitoring renal function.
[In-Hospital 72-Hour Treatment Protocol]
├── 1. Baseline Diagnostics ──► Chemistry (BUN, Cr, P, K+), Urinalysis (USG, Casts)
├── 2. IV Fluid Diuresis ────► 2× to 3× Maintenance Balanced Crystalloids (48–72 Hours)
├── 3. Urine Output Tracking ──► Quantitative In-and-Out Monitoring (Target: >2 mL/kg/h)
├── 4. Daily Bloodwork ──────► Recheck Chemistry Every 24 Hours for 3 Days
└── 5. Anuria Intervention ──► Furosemide/Mannitol or Hemodialysis / Peritoneal Dialysis
1. Baseline Diagnostic Evaluation
Upon hospital admission, veterinary teams obtain baseline parameters:
- Serum Chemistry Panel: Establish baseline BUN, Creatinine, Phosphorus, Calcium, and Electrolytes.
- Urinalysis: Evaluate Urine Specific Gravity (USG), sediment, proteinuria, and renal tubular casts before fluid therapy alters urine concentration.
2. Intravenous Fluid Diuresis Protocol
Intravenous fluid diuresis is the cornerstone of grape toxicity management.
- Fluid Choice: Balanced isotonic crystalloids (such as Lactated Ringer's Solution or Sterofundin).
- Infusion Rate: Administered at 2 to 3 times maintenance rates (approximately 6 to 9 mL/kg/hour) for a mandatory 48 to 72 hours.
- Clinical Goal: High-rate fluid diuresis expands intravascular volume, maintains maximum renal cortical blood flow, promotes renal flushing to clear filtered tartaric acid, and prevents tubular lumen collapse.
3. Quantitative Urine Output Monitoring ("Ins and Outs")
Monitoring urine output is mandatory to catch early transitions into oliguric renal failure.
- Normal urine output during fluid diuresis should exceed 2 to 3 mL/kg/hour.
- If urine output drops below 1 mL/kg/hour despite aggressive fluid administration, the dog is developing oliguric AKI.
- Critical Protocol Adjustment: Fluid infusion rates must be immediately reduced to match sensible losses plus urine output. Continuing high-rate IV fluids in an oliguric or anuric patient results in fatal pulmonary edema and hyperkalemic cardiac arrest.
4. Serial Chemistry Monitoring
Serum BUN, Creatinine, Phosphorus, and Electrolytes must be rechecked every 24 hours for at least 72 hours post-ingestion.
- If BUN and Creatinine remain completely static within normal reference intervals at the 72-hour mark and urine output remains strong, fluid diuresis is systematically tapered over 12 to 24 hours, and the patient is discharged.
- If BUN/Creatinine rise progressively, fluid therapy and supportive care continue, and advanced intervention is evaluated.
5. Management of Oliguric/Anuric AKI & Advanced Therapies
For patients that progress to oliguric or anuric renal failure despite fluid therapy:
- Diuretic Challenge: Loop diuretics such as Furosemide (2-4 mg/kg IV) or osmotic diuretics like Mannitol (0.25-0.5 g/kg IV over 20 mins) may be attempted to convert oliguria to polyuria.
- Renal Replacement Therapy (Dialysis): Intermittent Hemodialysis (IHD) or Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) at a veterinary referral center represents the definitive treatment for anuric AKI, performing metabolic waste clearance while tubular epithelium regenerates over weeks to months.
Related Toxicities and Conditions
To build a comprehensive understanding of canine toxicology and renal disease, review these related guides across VetMedGuide:
- Chocolate Toxicity: Read our companion guide on chocolate toxicity in dogs to review methylxanthine dose math, per-ounce tables, and 72-hour cardiac protocols.
- Xylitol Poisoning: Review our detailed breakdown of xylitol poisoning in dogs to understand rapid hypoglycemia protocols and hepatic necrosis monitoring.
- Acute Kidney Injury Management: Explore our clinical guide on acute kidney injury in dogs and cats for staging, IRIS guidelines, and hemodialysis referral protocols.
- Cannabis Toxicity: Consult our reference on marijuana toxicity in dogs for neurological sign timelines and edible co-toxicity management.
- Clinic Operations: Practice teams triaging incoming emergency calls should review our CSR phone triage protocol for veterinary clinics.
Prognosis and Outcome Expectations
The prognosis for grape and raisin toxicity depends heavily on the timeliness of decontamination and whether the patient develops oliguria:
- Excellent Prognosis: Dogs that undergo immediate gastrointestinal decontamination within 2 hours of ingestion and receive 72 hours of preventive IV fluid diuresis—without developing elevated BUN/Creatinine—have a near 100% survival rate with zero long-term renal impairment.
- Guarded Prognosis: Dogs that present with established non-oliguric acute kidney injury (elevated BUN/Creatinine, but maintaining normal urine output) have a fair to guarded prognosis. With 5 to 7 days of intensive fluid therapy, many recover functional renal capacity.
- Poor to Grave Prognosis: Dogs that progress to oliguric (<0.5 mL/kg/h) or anuric (0 mL/kg/h) renal failure have a poor prognosis without hemodialysis. In the largest published retrospective case series, 47% of dogs that developed grape- or raisin-induced acute kidney injury died or were euthanized (Eubig et al., 2005), and outcomes are worse once urine output is lost.
Frequently Asked Questions
How many grapes can kill a dog?
There is no established safe number of grapes. Documented toxic doses span a wide range — case series have recorded kidney injury from as little as roughly 0.32 oz of grapes per kilogram (about 9 g/kg) of body weight, which can be just a handful of grapes for a small dog, and a full box of raisins has caused fatal renal failure in medium-sized dogs. At the same time, some dogs consume larger amounts without harm, because tartaric acid levels vary by fruit and individual canine sensitivity is unpredictable. Any ingestion of even one grape or raisin warrants immediate veterinary contact.
Can a dog eat one grape and be fine?
Some dogs consume a single grape or raisin and experience no adverse effects, either because that specific fruit had low tartaric acid content or because the individual dog possesses higher physiological tolerance. However, because you cannot predict your dog's tolerance in advance, you should never assume one grape is safe. Always call your vet or poison control to evaluate the incident.
How long after eating grapes will a dog get sick?
Vomiting and gastrointestinal upset usually begin within 2 to 6 hours post-ingestion. However, the most dangerous consequence—acute kidney injury—takes 24 to 48 hours to manifest on bloodwork and clinical signs. This delayed onset is precisely why dogs must be hospitalized for 72-hour monitoring even if they appear completely normal on day one.
Are currants and raisins equally dangerous, and what about grape juice or wine?
Raisins, sultanas, and Zante currants are dried grapes (Vitis vinifera) and are more concentrated and dangerous per gram than fresh grapes. True black or red currants (Ribes genus) are safe. Grape juice, wine, cooked grape jellies, and cream of tartar baking powder all contain tartaric acid and carry renal risk. Wine adds ethanol toxicity, compounding the emergency.
Sources
- Wegenast, C. A., Meadows, I. D., Anderson, R. E., Southard, T., Gonzalez Barrientos, C. R., & Wismer, T. A. (2022). Acute kidney injury in dogs following ingestion of cream of tartar and tamarinds and the connection to tartaric acid as the proposed toxic principle in grapes and raisins. Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, 32(6), 812–816. PubMed: PMID 35869755
- Merck Veterinary Manual. Grape, Raisin, and Tamarind (Vitis spp, Tamarindus spp) Toxicosis in Dogs. Updated 2024. Available online: https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/food-hazards/grape-raisin-and-tamarind-vitis-spp-tamarindus-spp-toxicosis-in-dogs
- ASPCA Press Release. ASPCA Poison Control Reaches 5 Million Cases of Animal Exposures Since Hotline Inception. ASPCA. Available online: https://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-poison-control-reaches-5-million-cases-animal-exposures-hotline
- ASPCApro Clinical Resource. Toxic Component in Grapes and Raisins Identified. ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center. Available online: https://www.aspcapro.org/resource/toxic-component-grapes-and-raisins-identified
- ASPCApro Toxicology Brief. Grape and Raisin Toxicity in Dogs. ASPCA APCC. Available online: https://www.aspcapro.org/sites/default/files/q.pdf
- Morrow, C. M. K., Valli, V. E. O., Volmer, P. A., & Schaeffer, D. J. (2005). Canine renal pathology associated with grape or raisin ingestion. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 17(3), 223–231. PubMed Central: PMC7517833
- Eubig, P. A., Brady, M. S., Gwaltney-Brant, S. M., Khan, S. A., Mazzaferro, E. M., & Morrow, C. M. (2005). Acute renal failure in dogs after the ingestion of grapes or raisins: a retrospective evaluation of 43 dogs (1992–2002). Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 19(5), 663–674.
