When your veterinarian orders routine wellness screening, prepares your pet for anesthesia, or investigates unexplained vomiting, lethargy, or increased thirst, the resulting lab report almost always contains two core components: a complete blood count (CBC) and a serum blood chemistry panel (often abbreviated as "Chem 10," "Chem 17," or "Comprehensive Metabolic Profile").

While the CBC examines the cellular components floating in the bloodstream — red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets — the blood chemistry panel measures the dissolved chemical substances, enzymes, proteins, electrolytes, and metabolic waste products carried in the fluid portion of the blood (serum or plasma).

Looking at a portal printout covered in three-letter acronyms (ALT, ALP, BUN, CREA, GLU, ALB) and high/low alert flags can feel overwhelming. A single flagged value can cause immediate panic. But in clinical veterinary medicine, a chemistry panel is an organ-screening map, not a standalone diagnostic sentence.

A flagged number does not automatically mean organ failure. Interpretation requires understanding what each analyte screens, what pre-analytic variables confound it, how dogs and cats differ profoundly in their enzyme biology, and what logical next step your veterinarian takes to confirm or rule out disease.

Below is a comprehensive clinical guide to reading your dog's or cat's blood chemistry panel, based on the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ASVCP) standards, Merck Veterinary Manual clinical biochemistry guidelines, and peer-reviewed feline and canine clinical pathology literature.

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Chemistry Panel vs. CBC: The Core Diagnostic Boundary

Veterinary clinics run these two blood tests in tandem because they answer entirely different diagnostic questions: the CBC evaluates the cellular elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets), while the chemistry panel evaluates organ function, metabolites, enzymes, and electrolytes dissolved in the serum.

If your primary question concerns hematocrit, anemia, infection, or platelet counts, consult our companion reference on the complete blood count in dogs and cats. This guide focuses entirely on the serum biochemistry panel.

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The Four Golden Rules of Reading Veterinary Chemistry Panels

Before diving into individual organ profiles, understand the fundamental interpretation rules every veterinarian applies:

1. Your Reporting Laboratory's Reference Range Governs: As established by the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ASVCP) reference interval guidelines (Friedrichs et al., Vet Clin Pathol 2012, PMID 23240820), reference intervals are established specifically for a given analyzer technology, sample handling methodology, and validated reference population. Numbers slightly above or below generic textbook ranges are meaningless without comparing them to the specific lab's validated intervals.
2. The 5% Normal Outlier Phenomenon: Reference intervals are mathematically constructed to encompass the central 95% of a healthy reference population. This means 5% of perfectly healthy animals will naturally test slightly outside the reference interval for any given analyte. When a panel runs 20+ separate biochemical tests, the mathematical probability that a healthy dog has at least one minor flag is over 60%.
3. Trends and Patterns Matter More Than Single Numbers: An isolated mild elevation in a pet with zero clinical symptoms is managed by monitoring and rechecking. Conversely, concordant abnormalities (e.g., elevated BUN + high Creatinine + concentrated Urine Specific Gravity) establish a clear clinical diagnosis.
4. Species and Breed Nuance: Feline and canine physiology diverge sharply. Sighthound breeds (such as Greyhounds and Whippets) run naturally higher baseline creatinine values due to heavy muscle mass (Aust Vet J 2013, PMID 24571299), while growing puppies have naturally high ALP due to bone growth.

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Liver Function & Enzyme Profile: ALT, AST, ALP, GGT, and Bilirubin

The liver performs hundreds of metabolic functions. On a standard chemistry panel, liver analytes fall into two distinct pathophysiological categories: leakage enzymes (which indicate active cell damage) and cholestatic/inducible enzymes (which indicate impaired bile flow or metabolic induction).

Analyte	Primary source	What an elevation means
ALT (alanine aminotransferase)	Hepatocyte cytoplasm (liver-specific)	Active liver cell injury, necrosis, toxins, trauma, or inflammation
AST (aspartate aminotransferase)	Hepatocyte mitochondria and skeletal muscle	Liver injury or concurrent skeletal muscle damage (pair with CK)
ALP (alkaline phosphatase)	Biliary epithelium, bone, corticosteroid induction	Bile flow obstruction (cholestasis), steroid induction (dogs), bone growth
GGT (gamma-glutamyl transferase)	Biliary epithelial cells	Cholestatic liver disease, biliary hyperplasia, feline cholangiohepatitis
Total bilirubin	RBC breakdown byproduct excreted in bile	Pre-hepatic (hemolysis), hepatic, or post-hepatic (bile duct blockage)

1. ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase): The Hepatocyte Leakage Marker

ALT is an enzyme located inside the cytoplasm of liver cells (hepatocytes). It is highly liver-specific in dogs and cats.

• Mechanism: When liver cells suffer hypoxia, toxin exposure, inflammation, or physical trauma, their cell membranes become permeable, leaking ALT into the bloodstream.
• Magnitude Guide:
  • Mild elevation (1.5x to 2x upper limit of normal): Common with gastrointestinal inflammation, mild fatty change, medications (NSAIDs, antibiotics), or aging. Usually monitored.
  • Moderate elevation (3x to 5x normal): Seen with chronic hepatitis, tick-borne disease, pancreatitis, or drug hepatotoxicity.
  • Severe elevation (>5x to 10x+ normal): Indicates acute hepatic necrosis, acute toxicosis (e.g., xylitol, sago palm, blue-green algae), severe trauma, or circulatory collapse.
• Important Limitation: ALT reflects damage, not liver function. A dog in end-stage liver cirrhosis may have normal or low ALT because few functioning hepatocytes remain to leak enzyme.

2. ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase): The Cholestasis & Steroid Marker

ALP is an enzyme anchored to the cell membranes of the biliary tract, bone-forming cells (osteoblasts), and intestinal mucosa.

• The Critical Dog vs. Cat Asymmetry:
  • In Dogs: Canine ALP has a long circulating half-life of roughly 72 hours (3 days). Dogs possess a unique corticosteroid-induced ALP isoenzyme (C-ALP). High levels of endogenous cortisol (as in Cushing's disease) or exogenous steroid administration (prednisone, dexamethasone, steroid eye/ear drops) can drive canine ALP into the thousands without causing liver failure. Growing puppies also run high ALP due to active bone growth.
  • In Cats: Feline ALP has an extremely short circulating half-life of only 6 hours. Furthermore, cats lack the steroid-induced ALP isoenzyme. Consequently, any elevation of ALP in a cat is clinically significant and warrants immediate investigation for hepatic lipidosis (fatty liver), cholangiohepatitis, pancreatitis, or feline hyperthyroidism.
• If your dog has a massive ALP elevation alongside increased drinking and urination, review our diagnostic guide to Cushing's disease testing in dogs.

What Your Veterinarian Does Next for Flagged Liver Values

When liver enzymes are persistently elevated, your veterinarian does not guess. They follow this diagnostic sequence:

1. Medication Audit: Review all current prescriptions, supplements, and topicals (NSAIDs, anti-seizure meds, steroids).
2. Fasting & Postprandial Serum Bile Acids: A true test of liver function. Measures the liver's ability to clear bile acids from the portal circulation after eating (identifies portosystemic liver shunts and microvascular dysplasia).
3. Abdominal Ultrasound: Evaluates liver size, parenchymal architecture, gall bladder sludge/stones, biliary dilation, and focal nodules.

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Kidney Function Profile: BUN, Creatinine, SDMA, and Phosphorus

The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, balance electrolytes, and conserve water. Interpreting kidney markers requires understanding how non-kidney factors influence each test.

Analyte	Primary source	Key influencing factors
BUN (blood urea nitrogen)	Dietary protein breakdown (liver)	Elevated by dehydration, high-protein diet, upper GI bleeding, renal failure
Creatinine	Constant skeletal muscle breakdown	Elevated by reduced GFR (kidneys); confounded by muscle mass and wasting
SDMA (symmetric dimethylarginine)	Nuclear methylation of all nucleated cells	Early GFR loss marker; unaffected by muscle mass or dietary protein
Phosphorus	Dietary intake, excreted by kidneys	Retained by failing kidneys as GFR drops; critical IRIS staging target

1. BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

Urea is the waste product formed in the liver from the breakdown of dietary protein and amino acids. It is filtered and excreted by the kidneys.

• Why BUN Fluctuates: BUN is heavily influenced by hydration and digestion. Dehydration slows filtration through the nephrons, causing urea to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream (prerenal azotemia). A recent high-protein meal or upper gastrointestinal bleeding (where digested blood acts as a massive protein load) will dramatically spike BUN while leaving creatinine relatively normal.

2. Creatinine: The Muscle-Filtered Constant

Creatinine is a non-protein metabolic byproduct produced at a remarkably steady rate by the normal breakdown of muscle phosphocreatine. It is filtered freely by the glomerulus with minimal tubular reabsorption.

• The Muscle Mass Confounder: Because creatinine comes from muscle, body condition directly alters baseline values. A heavily muscled Greyhound or Pit Bull will naturally run near the top of or slightly above the reference range (Aust Vet J 2013). Conversely, a sarcopenic senior cat with severe muscle wasting will have a falsely low creatinine level, masking early kidney disease.

3. SDMA vs. Creatinine: Catching Kidney Decline Earlier

Symmetric Dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an amino acid released into the circulation during protein degradation.

• Creatinine levels typically remain within normal limits until roughly 75% of functional renal nephrons are lost.
• SDMA increases when approximately 25% to 40% of kidney function is compromised, providing an earlier screening window.
• Unlike creatinine, SDMA is not altered by loss of muscle mass, making it invaluable for senior feline screening. For a deep comparative analysis, review our guide on SDMA versus creatinine in cats.

The Three Types of Azotemia: Why Urine Specific Gravity (USG) is Required

Elevated BUN and Creatinine is termed azotemia. To determine what azotemia means, your veterinarian must evaluate a concurrent urinalysis (specifically Urine Specific Gravity, USG):

Type	Mechanism	Urine specific gravity	What it means
Prerenal azotemia	Blood supply to the kidneys is low (dehydration, heart failure, shock)	Concentrated (dog above 1.030, cat above 1.035)	Kidneys are healthy and working hard; values normalize rapidly with fluid therapy
Renal azotemia	Intrinsic kidney damage (AKI or CKD) with most nephrons lost	Inappropriately dilute (isosthenuria, roughly 1.008 to 1.015)	Managed with renal diets, hydration, phosphorus binders, and blood-pressure control
Post-renal azotemia	Urine cannot exit (blocked tomcat, urethral stone, torn bladder)	Variable	Life-threatening emergency with severe hyperkalemia; immediate catheterization or surgery

If your pet has confirmed renal azotemia, consult our comprehensive staging guide on feline chronic kidney disease (CKD) and our guide to quantifying protein loss with the urine protein-to-creatinine (UPC) ratio.

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Blood Glucose: Diabetes vs. Feline Stress Hyperglycemia

Blood glucose reflects carbohydrate metabolism, regulated primarily by insulin (which moves glucose into cells) and counter-regulatory hormones (cortisol, epinephrine, glucagon).

Species and value	Primary clinical suspects	Confirmatory testing
Dog above 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)	Diabetes mellitus, Cushing's disease, acute pancreatitis	Persistent glucosuria on urinalysis plus serial checks
Cat above 200 to 300 mg/dL (11.1 to 16.6 mmol/L)	Feline stress hyperglycemia versus true diabetes	Serum fructosamine test plus absence of urine glucose
Any pet below 60 mg/dL (3.3 mmol/L)	Insulin overdose, sepsis, insulinoma, xylitol toxicosis	Immediate point-of-care glucose confirmation

Why Feline Stress Hyperglycemia Fooled Thousands of Cat Owners

One of the most common false alarms in veterinary medicine is the cat that tests "diabetic" during a clinic visit.

Cats have an exquisitely sensitive sympathetic-adrenal axis. When frightened, stressed by car travel, or handled in an exam room, a massive surge of epinephrine and norepinephrine triggers rapid hepatic glycogen breakdown, spiking blood glucose within minutes.

In a foundational controlled study published in the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine (Rand et al., JVIM 2002, PMID 11899027), researchers subjected 20 healthy, non-diabetic cats to a mild 5-minute spray bath stressor:

• Mean blood glucose surged from a baseline of 83 mg/dL to a peak of 162 mg/dL, with individual cats climbing significantly higher.
• Blood glucose elevations correlated directly with plasma lactate (r = 0.84) and norepinephrine concentrations (r = 0.81).
• In 12 of the 20 cats, glucose levels normalized spontaneously within 90 minutes of stress cessation.

In extreme veterinary clinic panic, a healthy cat's blood glucose can surge over 300 mg/dL (16.6 mmol/L).

How Vets Confirm True Diabetes

A veterinarian never diagnoses feline diabetes based on a single high glucose reading on a clinic chemistry panel. They confirm it with two essential tools:

1. Urinalysis for Glucosuria: The feline renal threshold for glucose is roughly 250 to 300 mg/dL. If blood glucose spikes only briefly during the vet exam, glucose will not have had time to spill into the bladder urine.
2. Serum Fructosamine Test: Fructosamine is formed when glucose irreversibly binds to plasma proteins (primarily albumin). Because serum proteins circulate for 2 to 3 weeks, fructosamine reflects the pet's average blood sugar over the previous 14 to 21 days, completely immune to the acute 1-hour stress of the clinic visit.

For comprehensive diabetes protocols, explore our guides on canine diabetes mellitus and feline diabetes monitoring and insulin management.

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Proteins, Electrolytes & Minerals: Albumin, Globulin, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium

Analyte	Key functions	Causes of abnormalities
Albumin (ALB)	Maintains oncotic pressure; carries hormones and drugs (liver)	Low: GI loss (PLE), kidney loss (PLN), liver failure, sepsis
Globulin (GLOB)	Immunoglobulins and inflammatory acute-phase proteins	High: chronic inflammation, FIP, dental disease, vector-borne disease
Sodium (Na+)	Extracellular fluid balance and osmotic pressure	High: dehydration, salt toxicity. Low: Addison's disease, severe diarrhea
Potassium (K+)	Cardiac and neuromuscular resting membrane potential	High: urinary obstruction, Addison's disease. Low: anorexia, CKD polyuria
Calcium (Ca2+)	Neuromuscular excitability, bone structure, clotting	High: malignancy, renal failure. Low: eclampsia, pancreatitis
Phosphorus (P)	Cellular ATP, bone matrix, acid-base buffering	High: decreased kidney GFR. Low: refeeding, hyperparathyroidism

1. The Albumin / Globulin Split

• Albumin (ALB) is produced exclusively by the liver and accounts for roughly 75% of plasma oncotic pressure (the osmotic force that keeps fluid inside blood vessels). Severe hypoalbuminemia (<1.5 g/dL) causes fluid to leak into body cavities, producing ascites (abdominal fluid), pleural effusion, and peripheral edema. Causes include protein-losing enteropathy (PLE), protein-losing nephropathy (PLN), and end-stage liver failure.
• Globulin (GLOB) comprises antibodies (immunoglobulins) and acute-phase inflammatory proteins. Markedly elevated globulins indicate chronic immune stimulation (such as severe dental disease, leishmaniasis, or feline infectious peritonitis [FIP]).

2. The Sodium-to-Potassium (Na:K) Ratio in Addison's Disease

In healthy dogs, the ratio of serum sodium to potassium is typically between 27:1 and 40:1. When mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) deficiency occurs in Addison's disease, the kidneys dump sodium and retain potassium. A Na:K ratio below 27:1 (and especially below 23:1) is a classic hallmark of an acute Addisonian crisis, requiring confirmation via an ACTH stimulation test.

3. Calcium: Hypercalcemia vs. Hypocalcemia

• Hypercalcemia (High Calcium): In adult dogs and cats, high total and ionized calcium is a medical priority. The leading differential in dogs is humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy (HHM) associated with lymphoma, anal sac adenocarcinoma, or multiple myeloma, followed by primary hyperparathyroidism, renal failure, and rodenticide ingestion (cholecalciferol).
• Hypocalcemia (Low Calcium): Low calcium causes nerve hyperexcitability, muscle tremors, facial rubbing, and tetanic seizures (puerperal eclampsia in nursing mothers or acute pancreatitis).

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Pancreatic Enzymes: Amylase and Lipase vs. Spec cPL / Spec fPL

Routine chemistry panels often include traditional total serum Amylase and Lipase. Pet owners often see a red flag on lipase and immediately assume their dog has severe pancreatitis.

However, according to the Merck Veterinary Manual clinical biochemistry guidelines:

• Routine serum amylase and total lipase have only ~50% sensitivity and specificity for canine pancreatitis and have virtually zero diagnostic value in feline pancreatitis.
• Total lipase is produced not just by the pancreas, but by the stomach, duodenum, and adipose tissue. Steroid administration, dehydration, renal clearance reduction, and gastritis can all elevate total lipase without pancreatic inflammation.
• The Modern Standard: To accurately diagnose pancreatitis, veterinarians utilize Pancreatic Lipase Immunoreactivity (Spec cPL for dogs, Spec fPL for cats). Spec cPL uses monoclonal antibodies specific solely to exocrine pancreatic lipase, providing over 80% to 90% diagnostic accuracy when paired with abdominal ultrasound.

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Illustrative Reference Intervals (Merck Veterinary Manual Baseline)

The table below provides general illustrative reference intervals derived from the Merck Veterinary Manual clinical biochemistry tables.

Mandatory Clinical Caveat: These numbers are provided for educational context only. Your reporting laboratory's specific printed reference intervals always govern your pet's results. Never make medical decisions or adjust medications based on generic reference tables.

Analyte	Canine (dog) range	Feline (cat) range
ALT (U/L)	10 to 100	12 to 130
ALP (U/L)	20 to 150 (higher in puppies)	10 to 90
Total bilirubin (mg/dL)	0.1 to 0.3	0.1 to 0.4
BUN (mg/dL)	7 to 27	16 to 36
Creatinine (mg/dL)	0.5 to 1.5 (higher in sighthounds)	0.8 to 2.4
Blood glucose (mg/dL)	70 to 120	70 to 150 (stress can exceed 250)
Total protein (g/dL)	5.2 to 8.2	5.7 to 8.9
Albumin (g/dL)	2.5 to 4.0	2.1 to 3.9
Globulin (g/dL)	2.5 to 4.5	2.8 to 5.1
Calcium (mg/dL)	9.0 to 11.5	8.0 to 10.5
Phosphorus (mg/dL)	2.5 to 6.0 (higher in puppies)	3.0 to 6.5
Sodium (mEq/L)	144 to 160	150 to 165
Potassium (mEq/L)	3.5 to 5.5	3.5 to 5.5
Chloride (mEq/L)	105 to 115	112 to 129
Cholesterol (mg/dL)	130 to 350	95 to 260

Reference: Merck Veterinary Manual clinical biochemistry tables, conventional US units. Illustrative only — the reporting laboratory's intervals govern.

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Why does my vet want to recheck the test in a few weeks?

When a blood test comes back with a single mildly elevated enzyme in an otherwise happy, energetic pet, owners frequently wonder why the veterinarian recommends waiting and retesting in 3 to 4 weeks rather than immediately ordering thousands of dollars in advanced diagnostics.

Veterinarians take this measured approach for three evidence-based reasons:

1. Biological and Pre-Analytic Fluctuation: Serum enzyme activity fluctuates daily based on minor dietary changes, transient GI upset, subclinical muscle exertion, or pre-analytic sample artifacts (such as mild hemolysis from a difficult blood draw or lipemia from a fatty meal).
2. Transient vs. Progressive Pathology: If an elevated ALT was caused by a minor, self-resolving bout of gastroenteritis or a temporary medication side effect, the enzyme will steadily decline toward normal over its biological half-life. If the elevation is caused by progressive chronic hepatitis, the value will remain elevated or climb higher on recheck, justifying an ultrasound and liver biopsy.
3. Preventing Over-Diagnosis: Rushing to advanced imaging or invasive procedures for every minor statistical outlier subjects pets to unnecessary sedation and families to unnecessary financial strain.

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Which blood chemistry findings are true emergencies?

While most chemistry abnormalities are manageable on an outpatient schedule, certain critical biochemical patterns require same-day emergency hospitalization:

Critical pattern	Common causes	Immediate danger
Severe hyperkalemia (often with a blocked or ruptured bladder)	Blocked cat, acute anuria	Fatal cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac arrest
Severe hypoglycemia	Insulin overdose, sepsis, xylitol toxicosis	Neuroglycopenic seizures and irreversible coma
Marked hypercalcemia	Malignancy, cholecalciferol rodenticide	Acute renal tubular injury and soft-tissue mineralization
Severe hyponatremia	Addisonian crisis, severe pancreatitis	Cerebral edema and neurological collapse
Severe azotemia with inability to produce urine	Acute kidney injury, lily or grape toxicosis	Uremic encephalopathy and metabolic acidosis

The exact numeric level at which each of these becomes an emergency depends on the patient, the laboratory's intervals, how quickly the value is changing, and the signs the pet is showing — which is why these are patterns your veterinarian acts on, not numbers to evaluate at home.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How long do veterinary blood chemistry results take?

If your veterinary clinic utilizes point-of-care in-house chemistry analyzers (such as Idexx Catalyst or Abaxis VetScan), preliminary chemistry results are typically available within 15 to 30 minutes. If blood is sent to an external reference laboratory (such as Idexx Reference Laboratories or Antech Diagnostics), comprehensive results are usually returned to your veterinarian within 24 to 48 hours.

Should my pet fast before a blood chemistry panel?

Yes, whenever possible. A fast of 8 to 12 hours prior to routine blood collection is ideal (water is always permitted). Fasting prevents lipemia (excess fat droplets in the serum from a recent meal), which turns the serum milky and optically interferes with colorimetric analyzer readings for ALT, bilirubin, and electrolytes. Fasting is essential when running bile acids or lipid panels. In emergency triage or diabetic patients, bloodwork is run immediately regardless of fasting status.

How much does a dog or cat blood chemistry panel cost?

According to PetMD's consumer pricing guide, routine blood work combining a Complete Blood Count (CBC) and a biochemistry panel typically costs $100 to $200 for dogs and cats in general practice. Prices vary by region, laboratory, and how many analytes are included, and emergency or specialty hospitals generally charge more for the same panel because of around-the-clock staffing and point-of-care instrumentation.

Can medications cause elevated liver enzymes?

Yes. Many common veterinary and human medications alter liver values. Anticonvulsants like phenobarbital induce both ALT and ALP synthesis. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs like carprofen, meloxicam, or firocoxib) can cause mild reactive hepatopathy. Corticosteroids (prednisone) induce massive ALP elevations in dogs. Always inform your veterinarian of all medications, flea/tick preventives, and herbal supplements your pet receives.

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Sources

• Friedrichs, K. R., Harr, K. E., Freeman, K. P., Szladovits, B., Walton, R. M., Barnhardt, K. F., & Blanco-Chavez, J. (2012): ASVCP reference interval guidelines: determination of de novo reference intervals in veterinary species and other related topics. Veterinary Clinical Pathology, 41(4), 441–453. PMID: 23240820.
• Rand, J. S., Kinnaird, E., Baglioni, A., Blackshaw, J., & Priest, J. (2002): Acute stress hyperglycemia in cats is associated with struggling and increased concentrations of lactate and norepinephrine. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine (JVIM), 16(2), 123–132. PMID: 11899027.
• Merck Veterinary Manual: Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals: Reference Intervals and Diagnostic Interpretation. Available at: https://www.merckvetmanual.com/special-subjects/reference-guides/serum-biochemical-reference-ranges (Accessed August 18, 2026).
• Stockham, S. L., & Scott, M. A. (2008): Fundamentals of Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 2nd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing.
• Uhríková, I., Lačňáková, A., Tandlerová, K., Kuchařová, V., Řeháková, K., Jánová, E., & Doubek, J. (2013): Haematological and biochemical variations among eight sighthound breeds. Australian Veterinary Journal, 91(11), 452–459. PMID: 24571299.
• Washington State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital: Understanding your pet's lab tests. Clinical Pathology Client Reference Guide. Available at: https://hospital.vetmed.wsu.edu/2022/01/12/understanding-your-pets-lab-tests/ (Accessed August 18, 2026).
• PetMD: Blood Tests for Dogs and Cats: Costs and How To Read Results. Available at: https://www.petmd.com/dog/procedure/blood-work-for-dogs-and-cats (Accessed August 18, 2026).